Guidelines for inhaled sedation in the ICU.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Sedation is used in intensive care units (ICU) to improve comfort and tolerance during mechanical ventilation, invasive interventions, and nursing care. In recent years, the use of inhalation anaesthetics for this purpose has increased. Our objective was to obtain and summarise the best evidence on inhaled sedation in adult patients in the ICU, and use this to help physicians choose the most appropriate approach in terms of the impact of sedation on clinical outcomes and the risk-benefit of the chosen strategy. METHODOLOGY: Given the overall lack of literature and scientific evidence on various aspects of inhaled sedation in the ICU, we decided to use a Delphi method to achieve consensus among a group of 17 expert panellists. The processes was conducted over a 12-month period between 2022 and 2023, and followed the recommendations of the CREDES guidelines. RESULTS: The results of the Delphi survey form the basis of these 39 recommendations - 23 with a strong consensus and 15 with a weak consensus. CONCLUSION: The use of inhaled sedation in the ICU is a reliable and appropriate option in a wide variety of clinical scenarios. However, there are numerous aspects of the technique that require further study.

Manejo anestésico de los procedimientos neuroquirúrgicos endovasculares en pacientes con accidente cerebrovascular isquémico: revisión sistemática de metaanálisis / Anesthetic management of endovascular neurosurgical procedures in acute ischemic stroke patients: A systematic review of meta-analyses

La restauración de la circulación cerebral en la zona de isquemia es la tarea más crítica dentro del tratamiento para reducir la lesión neuronal irreversible en pacientes con accidente cerebrovascular isquémico. La recanalización de la circulación cerebral en los pacientes seleccionados se ha vuelto indispensable para mejorar los resultados clínicos y ha dado lugar a las técnicas de revascularización generalizadas. No existe una respuesta clara sobre qué modalidad anestésica utilizar en pacientes con accidente cerebrovascular isquémico agudo sometidos a procedimientos neuroendovasculares. El propósito de esta revisión sistemática es realizar un análisis cualitativo de revisiones sistemáticas y metaanálisis (RS y MA) que comparen métodos de anestesia general y otros tipos de anestesia para intervenciones endovasculares cerebrales en pacientes con accidente cerebrovascular isquémico agudo. Desarrollamos un protocolo con los criterios de inclusión y exclusión para publicaciones coincidentes y realizamos una búsqueda bibliográfica en PubMed y Google Scholar. La búsqueda bibliográfica arrojó 52 publicaciones potenciales. En esta revisión se incluyeron y analizaron diez RS y MA relevantes. La decisión sobre qué método de anestesia utilizar para los procedimientos endovasculares en el manejo de pacientes con accidente cerebrovascular isquémico agudo debe tomarse en función de las características personales del paciente, fenotipos fisiopatológicos, características clínicas y la experiencia institucional.(AU)

Restoration of cerebral circulation in the ischemic area is the most critical treatment task for reducing irreversible neuronal injury in ischemic stroke patients. The recanalización of appropriately selected patients became indispensable for improving clinical outcomes and resulted in the widespread revascularization techniques. There is no clear answer as to which anesthetic modality to use in ischemic stroke patients undergoing neuro-endovascular procedures. The purpose of this systematic review is to conduct a qualitative analysis of systematic reviews and meta-analyses (RSs & MAs) comparing general anesthesia and non-general anesthesia methods for cerebral endovascular interventions in acute ischemic stroke patients. We developed a protocol with the inclusion and exclusion criteria for matched publications and conducted a literature search in PubMed and Google Scholar. The literature search yielded 52 potential publications. Ten relevant RSs & MAs were included and analyzed in this review. The decision about which anesthesia method to use for endovascular procedures in managing acute ischemic stroke patients should be made based on the patient's personal characteristics, pathophysiological phenotypes, clinical characteristics, and institutional experience.(AU)

Anesthetic management of endovascular neurosurgical procedures in acute ischemic stroke patients: A systematic review of meta-analyses.

Restoration of cerebral circulation in the ischemic area is the most critical treatment task for reducing irreversible neuronal injury in ischemic stroke patients. The recanalización of appropriately selected patients became indispensable for improving clinical outcomes and resulted in the widespread revascularization techniques. There is no clear answer as to which anesthetic modality to use in ischemic stroke patients undergoing neuro-endovascular procedures. The purpose of this systematic review is to conduct a qualitative analysis of systematic reviews and meta-analyses (RSs & MAs) comparing general anesthesia and non-general anesthesia methods for cerebral endovascular interventions in acute ischemic stroke patients. We developed a protocol with the inclusion and exclusion criteria for matched publications and conducted a literature search in PubMed and Google Scholar. The literature search yielded 52 potential publications. Ten relevant RSs & MAs were included and analysed in this review. The decision about which anesthesia method to use for endovascular procedures in managing acute ischemic stroke patients should be made based on the patient's personal characteristics, pathophysiological phenotypes, clinical characteristics, and institutional experience.

Ten physiological commandments for severe head injury.

Advances in multiparametric brain monitoring have allowed us to deepen our knowledge of the physiopathology of head injury and how it can be treated using the therapies available today. It is essential to understand and interpret a series of basic physiological and physiopathological principles that, on the one hand, provide an adequate metabolic environment to prevent worsening of the primary brain injury and favour its recovery, and on the other hand, allow therapeutic resources to be individually adapted to the specific needs of the patient. Based on these notions, this article presents a decalogue of the physiological objectives to be achieved in brain injury, together with a series of diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations for achieving these goals. We emphasise the importance of considering and analysing the physiological variables involved in the transport of oxygen to the brain, such as cardiac output and arterial oxygen content, together with their conditioning factors and possible alterations. Special attention is paid to the basic elements of physiological neuroprotection, and we describe the multiple causes of cerebral hypoxia, how to approach them, and how to correct them. We also examine the increase in intracranial pressure as a physiopathological element, focussing on the significance of thoracic and abdominal pressure in the interpretation of intracranial pressure. Treatment of intracranial pressure should be based on a step-wise model, the first stage of which should be based on a physiopathological reflection combined with information on the tomographic lesions rather than on rigid numerical values.

Diez mandamientos fisiológicos a lograr durante el traumatismo craneoencefálico grave / Ten physiological commandments for severe head injury

Los avances en la monitorización cerebral multiparamétrica han permitido ahondar en el conocimiento de la fisiopatología del traumatismo craneoencefálico, y en cómo la terapéutica disponible puede modularla. Para ello, se antoja imprescindible conocer e interpretar una serie de principios fisiológicos y fisiopatológicos básicos que propician, por un lado, un entorno metabólico cerebral adecuado para prevenir un incremento de la lesión cerebral primaria y favorecer su recuperación, y por otro lado, permiten adaptar de forma individualizada los recursos terapéuticos a la situación concreta del paciente. En el presente artículo se exponen, en forma de decálogo, sustentados en dichas nociones, los objetivos fisiológicos a conseguir, junto con una serie de recomendaciones diagnósticas y terapéuticas que posibiliten su logro. Se hace énfasis en la consideración y análisis de las variables fisiológicas implicadas en el transporte de oxígeno al cerebro, como el gasto cardiaco y el contenido arterial de oxígeno, junto con sus condicionantes y las posibles alteraciones de cada uno de ellos. Cobran especial atención los elementos básicos que constituyen la neuroprotección fisiológica. Asimismo, se razonan las múltiples causas que provocan hipoxia cerebral y el modo de abordarlas y corregirlas. El aumento de la presión intracraneal, como elemento fisiopatológico, se examina, subrayándose para interpretarla la interconexión e influencia de la presión torácica y abdominal sobre la intracraneal. El tratamiento de la presión intracraneal debe efectuarse sobre un modelo de acciones escalonadas, cuyo inicio debería cimentarse más que en valores numéricos rígidos, en una reflexión fisiopatológica unida a la información de las lesiones tomográficas.(AU)

Advances in multiparametric brain monitoring have allowed us to deepen our knowledge of the physiopathology of head injury and how it can be treated using the therapies available today. It is essential to understand and interpret a series of basic physiological and physiopathological principles that, on the one hand, provide an adequate metabolic environment to prevent worsening of the primary brain injury and favour its recovery, and on the other hand, allow therapeutic resources to be individually adapted to the specific needs of the patient. Based on these notions, this article presents a decalogue of the physiological objectives to be achieved in brain injury, together with a series of diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations for achieving these goals. We emphasise the importance of considering and analysing the physiological variables involved in the transport of oxygen to the brain, such as cardiac output and arterial oxygen content, together with their conditioning factors and possible alterations. Special attention is paid to the basic elements of physiological neuroprotection, and we describe the multiple causes of cerebral hypoxia, how to approach them, and how to correct them. We also examine the increase in intracranial pressure as a physiopathological element, focussing on the significance of thoracic and abdominal pressure in the interpretation of intracranial pressure. Treatment of intracranial pressure should be based on a step-wise model, the first stage of which should be based on a physiopathological reflection combined with information on the tomographic lesions rather than on rigid numerical values.(AU)

Ten physiological commandments for severe head injury. / Diez mandamientos fisiológicos a lograr durante el traumatismo craneoencefálico grave.

Advances in multiparametric brain monitoring have allowed us to deepen our knowledge of the physiopathology of head injury and how it can be treated using the therapies available today. It is essential to understand and interpret a series of basic physiological and physiopathological principles that, on the one hand, provide an adequate metabolic environment to prevent worsening of the primary brain injury and favour its recovery, and on the other hand, allow therapeutic resources to be individually adapted to the specific needs of the patient. Based on these notions, this article presents a decalogue of the physiological objectives to be achieved in brain injury, together with a series of diagnostic and therapeutic recommendations for achieving these goals. We emphasise the importance of considering and analysing the physiological variables involved in the transport of oxygen to the brain, such as cardiac output and arterial oxygen content, together with their conditioning factors and possible alterations. Special attention is paid to the basic elements of physiological neuroprotection, and we describe the multiple causes of cerebral hypoxia, how to approach them, and how to correct them. We also examine the increase in intracranial pressure as a physiopathological element, focussing on the significance of thoracic and abdominal pressure in the interpretation of intracranial pressure. Treatment of intracranial pressure should be based on a step-wise model, the first stage of which should be based on a physiopathological reflection combined with information on the tomographic lesions rather than on rigid numerical values.

Circuitos postoperatorios en los pacientes sometidos a craneotomía programada. Revisión narrativa / Postoperative circuits in patients undergoing elective craniotomy. A narrative review

En 2017 la sección de Neurociencias de la Sociedad Española de Anestesiología, Reanimación y Terapéutica del Dolor publicó una encuesta nacional sobre los circuitos de atención y tratamiento postoperatorio en neurocirugía. La encuesta evidenció una gran heterogeneidad de respuestas en función del centro, el anestesiólogo y la afección del paciente. En la actualidad, no disponemos de un estándar de circuito postoperatorio y existe evidencia suficiente para no indicar de forma rutinaria el ingreso en Unidades de Cuidados Críticos Postquirúrgicos a todos los pacientes intervenidos de craneotomía programada. El objetivo de este estudio es hacer una revisión narrativa de los circuitos postoperatorios en la craneotomía programada, para intentar homogeneizar nuestra práctica clínica a la luz de los estudios publicados. Se ha hecho una revisión bibliográfica de los últimos diez años, fecha de actualización noviembre 2019, utilizando las palabras clave neurosurgery and postoperative care y craniotomyand postoperative care en MEDLINE (PubMed)

In 2017, the Neurosciences section of the Spanish Society of Anaesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Therapy published a national survey on postoperative care and treatment circuits in neurosurgery. The survey showed that practices vary widely, depending on the centre, the anaesthesiologist and the pathology of the patient. There is currently no standard postoperative circuit for cranial neurosurgical procedures in Spanish hospitals, and there is sufficient evidence to show that not all patients undergoing elective craniotomy should be routinely admitted to a postsurgical critical care unit. The aim of this study is to perform a narrative review of postoperative circuits in elective craniotomy in order to standardise clinical practice in the light of published studies. For this purpose, we searched MEDLINE (PubMed) to retrieve studies published in the last ten years, up to November 2019, using the keywords neurosurgery and postoperative care, craniotomyand postoperative care

Postoperative circuits in patients undergoing elective craniotomy. A narrative review. / Circuitos postoperatorios en los pacientes sometidos a craneotomía programada. Revisión narrativa.

In 2017, the Neurosciences section of the Spanish Society of Anaesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Therapy published a national survey on postoperative care and treatment circuits in neurosurgery. The survey showed that practices vary widely, depending on the centre, the anaesthesiologist and the pathology of the patient. There is currently no standard postoperative circuit for cranial neurosurgical procedures in Spanish hospitals, and there is sufficient evidence to show that not all patients undergoing elective craniotomy should be routinely admitted to a postsurgical critical care unit. The aim of this study is to perform a narrative review of postoperative circuits in elective craniotomy in order to standardise clinical practice in the light of published studies. For this purpose, we searched MEDLINE (PubMed) to retrieve studies published in the last ten years, up to November 2019, using the keywords neurosurgery and postoperative care, craniotomyand postoperative care.

Correction to: Serum sodium and intracranial pressure changes after desmopressin therapy in severe traumatic brain injury patients: a multi-centre cohort study.

Following publication of the original article [1], we were notified that the collaborators' names part of the "The TBI Collaborative" group has not been indexed in Pubmed. Below the collaborators names full list.

Serum sodium and intracranial pressure changes after desmopressin therapy in severe traumatic brain injury patients: a multi-centre cohort study.

BACKGROUND: In traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients desmopressin administration may induce rapid decreases in serum sodium and increase intracranial pressure (ICP). AIM: In an international multi-centre study, we aimed to report changes in serum sodium and ICP after desmopressin administration in TBI patients. METHODS: We obtained data from 14 neurotrauma ICUs in Europe, Australia and UK for severe TBI patients (GCS ≤ 8) requiring ICP monitoring. We identified patients who received any desmopressin and recorded daily dose, 6-hourly serum sodium, and 6-hourly ICP. RESULTS: We studied 262 severe TBI patients. Of these, 39 patients (14.9%) received desmopressin. Median length of treatment with desmopressin was 1 [1-3] day and daily intravenous dose varied between centres from 0.125 to 10 mcg. The median hourly rate of decrease in serum sodium was low (- 0.1 [- 0.2 to 0.0] mmol/L/h) with a median period of decrease of 36 h. The proportion of 6-h periods in which the rate of natremia correction exceeded 0.5 mmol/L/h or 1 mmol/L/h was low, at 8% and 3%, respectively, and ICPs remained stable. After adjusting for IMPACT score and injury severity score, desmopressin administration was independently associated with increased 60-day mortality [HR of 1.83 (1.05-3.24) (p = 0.03)]. CONCLUSIONS: In severe TBI, desmopressin administration, potentially representing instances of diabetes insipidus is common and is independently associated with increased mortality. Desmopressin doses vary markedly among ICUs; however, the associated decrease in natremia rarely exceeds recommended rates and median ICP values remain unchanged. These findings support the notion that desmopressin therapy is safe.

Neurocritical care for intracranial haemorrhage: a systematic review of recent studies.

Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is associated with significant early mortality (up to 50% at 30 days) and long-term morbidity (with permanent neurological deficits in 75-80% of patients) and represents a serious health issue worldwide. The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in clinical research on ICH diagnosis and treatment that has led to revision of the guidelines for the diagnosis and management of ICH from the American Heart Association and American Stroke Association in 2013. This systematic review reports recent clinical evidence (original studies published between September 2013 and July 2015) related to neurocritical care and intensive care unit management of patients with ICH. All but one publication included in this review report original studies related to managment of patients with intracerebral or subarachnoid haemorrhage. These include insights on risk stratification and neurocritical care or intensive care unit treatment, management of haemodynamic variables and mechanical ventilation (goal-directed fluid therapy, advanced haemodynamic monitoring, and avoidance of hyperoxia and hyperventilation), and pharmacological neuroprotection.

Hipertensión endocraneal asociada a la sedación con sevoflurano mediante el dispositivo AnaConDa ®en un paciente con traumatismo craneoencefálico severo / Intracranial hypertension related to sedation with sevoflurane using the AnaConDa ® device in a patient with severe traumatic brain injury

La sedación en los pacientes neurocríticos es difícil, debido a que ningún fármaco cumple todos los requisitos. Desde la aparición del dispositivo AnaConDa® y según las últimas recomendaciones, el sevoflurano se ha convertido en una alternativa para el paciente neurocrítico. Una de las consecuencias de la utilización del dispositivo es el aumento del espacio muerto anatómico instrumental que produce una disminución de la ventilación alveolar. Si la disminución de la ventilación alveolar no se compensa con un aumento del volumen minuto se producirá un aumento de la PaCO2. Presentamos el caso de un paciente con traumatismo craneoencefálico severo en el que se produjo un aumento de la presión endocraneal como consecuencia del aumento de la PaCO2 tras colocar el dispositivo AnaConDa® para sedación (AU)

Síndrome compartimental abdominal y síndrome de distrés intestinal agudo / Abdominal compartment syndrome and acute intestinal distress syndrome

La Hipertensión Intraabdominal (HIA) y el Síndrome Compartimental Abdominal (SCA) son entidades frecuentes en los pacientes graves y cursan con una alta mortalidad. En esta revisión se actualizan los aspectos más debatidos sobre la HIA y el SCA: factores desencadenantes, epidemiología, pronóstico, métodos de medición de la presión intraabdominal (PIA), consecuencias fisiopatológicas y medidas terapéuticas, tanto médicas como quirúrgicas. Se plantea que, simultáneamente a los mecanismos de lesión estrictamente físicos, como la compresión directa de vasos y órganos intraabdominales, la transmisión de la PIA a otros compartimentos y el descenso del gasto cardíaco, pueden intervenir también una serie de mediadores inmunoinflamatorios generados en el propio intestino. La hipoperfusión, la isquemia mantenida y el fenómeno isquemia-reperfusión actuarían sobre la microbiota, el epitelio y sistema inmune intestinal desencadenando el Síndrome de Distrés Intestinal Agudo, una respuesta inflamatoria sistémica y una eventual disfunción multiorgánica que pueden aparecer en fases tardías del SCA (AU)

Seriously ill patients frequently present intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) as complications, and the associated mortality is very high. This review offers an update on the most controversial aspects of these entities: factors favoring their appearance, the most common causes, prognosis, and methods of measuring intra-abdominal pressure (IAP), physiopathological consequences in relation to the different organs and systems, and the currently accepted treatment measures (medical and/or surgical). Simultaneously to the strictly physical mechanisms of injury, such as direct compression of intra-abdominal organs and vessels, the transmission of IAP to other compartments, and the drop in cardiac output, a series of immune-inflammatory mediators generated in the intestine itself may also intervene. Hypoperfusion, sustained ischemia and the ischemia-reperfusion phenomenon, would act upon the microbiota, intestinal epithelium and intestinal immune system, triggering a systemic inflammatory response and multiorgan dysfunction that appears in the final stages of ACS (AU)

[Abdominal compartment syndrome and acute intestinal distress syndrome]. / Síndrome compartimental abdominal y síndrome de distrés intestinal agudo.

Seriously ill patients frequently present intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) as complications, and the associated mortality is very high. This review offers an update on the most controversial aspects of these entities: factors favoring their appearance, the most common causes, prognosis, and methods of measuring intra-abdominal pressure (IAP), physiopathological consequences in relation to the different organs and systems, and the currently accepted treatment measures (medical and/or surgical). Simultaneously to the strictly physical mechanisms of injury, such as direct compression of intra-abdominal organs and vessels, the transmission of IAP to other compartments, and the drop in cardiac output, a series of immune-inflammatory mediators generated in the intestine itself may also intervene. Hypoperfusion, sustained ischemia and the ischemia-reperfusion phenomenon, would act upon the microbiota, intestinal epithelium and intestinal immune system, triggering a systemic inflammatory response and multiorgan dysfunction that appears in the final stages of ACS.

[Intracranial hypertension related to sedation with sevoflurane using the AnaConDa(®) device in a patient with severe traumatic brain injury]. / Hipertensión endocraneal asociada a la sedación con sevoflurano mediante el dispositivo AnaConDa(®)en un paciente con traumatismo craneoencefálico severo.

Sedation in neurocritical patients remains a challenge as there is no drug that meets all the requirements. Since the appearance of the AnaConDa(®) device, and according to the latest recommendations, sevoflurane has become an alternative for patients with brain injury. The use of AnaConDa(®) produces an increase in the anatomical dead space that leads to a decrease in alveolar ventilation. If the decrease in the alveolar ventilation is not offset by an increase in minute volume, there will be an increase in PaCO2. We report the case of a patient with severe traumatic brain injury who suffered an increase in intracranial pressure as a result of increased PaCO2 after starting sedation with the AnaConDa(®) device.

[Headache after spinal puncture. Treatment alternatives: epidural blood patch]. / Cefalea pospunción raquídea. Alternativas de tratamiento: parche hemático epidural.

Headache is one of the most frequent complications of the subarachnoid puncture. Physiopathology and the different clinical factors involved in this type of headache are reviewed. The treatment is based in two types of procedures: those increasing cerebrospinal fluid production and those trying to decrease its leakage, like the epidural blood patch.